1. Introduction: Tracing Historical Threads in Contemporary Geopolitics

 

Building on the foundational definitions in the first article and the analysis of internal fragmentations in the second, this third instalment in the series Navigating Global Blocs: An African Lens examines the historical context shaping Africa’s interactions with BRICS and the West. From the colonial era to modern engagements, Africa’s relationships with these blocs have been influenced by legacies of exploitation, power imbalances, and evolving multipolarity. This historical lens reveals how colonial structures laid the groundwork for Western dominance, while the emergence of BRICS offers pathways for rebalancing global dynamics. Emphasising African agency, this article explores these trajectories, highlighting how they inform contemporary strategies such as the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) and Agenda 2063.

 

2. Africa’s Colonial Legacy: Foundations of Western Engagement

 

The colonial period, spanning the late 19th to mid-20th centuries, profoundly shaped Africa’s geopolitical landscape, establishing patterns of economic extraction and political control that persist in modified forms today. European powers—primarily Britain, France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany—divided the continent during the 1884–1885 Berlin Conference, disregarding indigenous boundaries and societies. This “Scramble for Africa” resulted in arbitrary borders that fuelled ethnic conflicts and resource exploitation, with colonies serving as sources of raw materials for Western industrialisation.

 

In sub-Saharan Africa, British colonies like Nigeria and South Africa focused on mineral extraction, while French West Africa emphasised cash crops such as cotton and groundnuts. The economic model was extractive: raw commodities were exported to Europe, and manufactured goods imported back, creating dependency. Politically, colonial rule suppressed local governance, imposing administrative systems that prioritised metropolitan interests. Resistance movements, such as the Mau Mau uprising in Kenya (1952–1960) and the Algerian War (1954–1962), highlighted African agency in challenging these structures, but decolonisation often left neo-colonial ties intact.

 

Post-independence, many African states inherited fragile institutions and economies oriented towards Western markets. The legacy includes debt burdens from colonial-era infrastructure loans and unequal trade agreements. For instance, the CFA franc system in former French colonies ties currencies to the euro, limiting monetary sovereignty. This historical context explains lingering scepticism towards Western engagements, as seen in contemporary debates over aid conditionalities from institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank. From an African perspective, these legacies underscore the need for diversified partnerships, where BRICS emerges as an alternative to mitigate historical imbalances.

 

3. Post-Colonial Era and Cold War Dynamics: Western Influence and Emerging Alternatives

 

Decolonisation in the 1950s and 1960s marked a shift, but the Cold War (1947–1991) repositioned Africa as a battleground for ideological competition between the West and the Soviet bloc. Western powers, through aid, military support, and economic ties, sought to counter communist influence, often propping up authoritarian regimes aligned with capitalist models. The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and European colonial successors provided assistance, but this was frequently conditional on political alignments, exacerbating internal divisions.

 

In Angola and Mozambique, Western-backed factions clashed with Soviet-supported liberation movements, prolonging conflicts and hindering development. The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), co-founded by African leaders like Ghana’s Kwame Nkrumah in 1961, represented an early assertion of agency, rejecting binary alignments. However, economic vulnerabilities—stemmed from colonial legacies—limited this autonomy, with many states relying on Western loans and markets. The Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) of the 1980s and 1990s, imposed by the IMF and World Bank, enforced liberalisation and austerity, leading to social unrest and debt traps in countries like Zambia and Nigeria.

 

The end of the Cold War in 1991 consolidated Western hegemony through globalisation and institutions like the World Trade Organisation (WTO, established 1995). Africa’s marginalisation in these forums perpetuated unequal trade, with subsidies in Western agriculture disadvantaging African exporters. Yet, this era also saw nascent south-south cooperation, such as the India-Africa Forum Summit (2008), foreshadowing BRICS’ role. From an African standpoint, the post-colonial period highlighted the risks of over-reliance on the West, prompting initiatives like the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD, 2001) to foster self-reliance.

 

4. Emergence of BRICS: A Shift Towards Multipolarity and South-South Cooperation

 

The formation of BRICS in 2009 represented a pivotal response to Western-dominated global order, drawing on historical south-south solidarity movements like the Bandung Conference (1955). Initially an economic grouping, BRICS evolved to challenge institutions such as the IMF, offering alternatives through the New Development Bank (NDB, 2015). For Africa, this shift provided opportunities to diversify beyond colonial-era ties, with South Africa’s inclusion in 2010 marking the continent’s entry.

 

BRICS’ emphasis on multipolarity resonated with African aspirations, as evidenced by NDB funding for infrastructure without stringent conditionalities. Ethiopia’s Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, partially supported by BRICS-aligned investments, exemplifies this. The group’s expansion—adding Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE in 2024, followed by Indonesia in January 2025—further integrated African voices, with Ethiopia’s membership strengthening ties to the African Union (AU). Partner countries like Nigeria and Uganda enhance this framework, facilitating trade and investment diversification.

 

In contrast, Western engagements post-2000 focused on security and governance, with NATO expanding its southern flank to counter influences from Russia and China in Africa. Initiatives like the US’s Africa Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA, 2000) boosted trade but were critiqued for favouring American interests. The 2008 financial crisis exposed Western vulnerabilities, accelerating Africa’s pivot to BRICS nations, particularly China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), which invested over USD 200-billion in African infrastructure by 2025. This historical pivot underscores Africa’s strategic use of BRICS to address colonial legacies, promoting equitable partnerships.

 

Timeline: Key Milestones in Africa’s Engagements with the West and BRICS (1885–2025)

Year	Event	Significance for Africa
1884–1885	Berlin Conference	Division of Africa among European powers, establishing colonial borders.
1955	Bandung Conference	Foundation for south-south cooperation, inspiring non-alignment.
1960s	Wave of African Independence	End of formal colonialism, but neo-colonial ties persist.
1975	Formation of G7	Western economic coordination, influencing global finance.
1980s–1990s	IMF/World Bank Structural Adjustment Programmes	Enforced austerity, exacerbating debt and inequality.
2001	NEPAD Launched	African-led development framework, emphasising self-reliance.
2009	First BRIC Summit	Emergence of alternative grouping for emerging economies.
2010	South Africa Joins BRICS	African representation in BRICS, boosting south-south ties.
2013	Agenda 2063 Adopted by AU	Vision for African sovereignty and integration.
2015	NDB Established	Alternative financing for infrastructure, reducing Western dependency.
2018	AfCFTA Signed	Intra-African trade initiative to foster economic autonomy.
2024	BRICS Expansion (Egypt, Ethiopia, etc.)	Enhanced African integration into multipolar frameworks.
2025	Indonesia Joins BRICS; Rio Summit	Focus on global reforms, with African priorities on agenda.

 

This timeline illustrates the transition from colonial dominance to multipolar engagements, with African initiatives gaining prominence.

 

5. Modern Engagements: From 2000 to 2025 and Implications for African Agency

 

In the 21st century, Africa’s interactions with the West and BRICS have intensified amid globalisation and geopolitical shifts. Western influence, through aid and security pacts, has faced challenges from rising powers. NATO’s focus on Africa’s Sahel region, addressing jihadist threats and migration, reflects efforts to maintain strategic footholds. However, events like the 2024 US election and subsequent trade disputes have introduced uncertainties, with tariffs affecting African exports.

 

BRICS engagements have grown, with the 2025 Rio Summit emphasising de-dollarisation and sustainable development, aligning with African priorities. China’s BRI and Russia’s security partnerships in West Africa counter Western narratives, though they raise concerns about debt sustainability. African states, through the AU, have asserted agency, as in the 2025 withdrawals from ECOWAS by Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger, citing Western biases.

 

These dynamics highlight opportunities for Africa: AfCFTA, operational since 2021, aims to increase intra-continental trade to 52% by 2045, reducing external dependencies. Agenda 2063 reinforces this, promoting industrialisation and unity. Yet, challenges persist, including spillover from bloc tensions, such as proxy conflicts influenced by colonial legacies. From an African lens, modern engagements emphasise strategic diversification, viewing BRICS and the West as complementary tools for development.

 

6. Conclusion: Historical Insights for Future African Strategies

 

The historical context—from colonial exploitation to multipolar shifts—illuminates how Africa’s engagements with BRICS and the West have evolved, shaped by legacies of imbalance and assertions of sovereignty. While Western ties offer institutional resources, their conditional nature echoes colonial patterns, prompting diversification through BRICS’ inclusive frameworks. As of 2025, with expanded BRICS membership and African-led initiatives like AfCFTA, the continent is better positioned to prioritise agency and equitable partnerships. This analysis builds on prior articles, underscoring the fluid nature of global blocs. The next instalment will explore the stakes for Africa, examining economic, political, and strategic implications in greater depth.